SYNOPSYS
IntroductionAlexander's
Parents
Alexander's
Youth
Alexander
and Philip
Philip's
death
Invasion
of Persia
Asia
Minor and the Battle of Issus
Conquest
of the East Mediterranean coast
Alexander
in Egypt
Alexander
in
Mesopotamia
Campaign
eastward, to Central Asia
Alexander's
Death
Hellenistic
Era
Epilogue
Introduction.
Alexandros III Philippou Makedonon (Alexander
the Great, Alexander III of Macedon) (356-323 B.C.), king of Macedonia,
born in late July 356 BC in Pella, Macedonia, one of the greatest military
genius in history. He conquered much of what was then the civilized world,
governed by his divine ambition of the world conquest and creation of universal
world monarchy.
Arrian describes
Alexander: the strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as a night
and one blue as a sky, always leading his army on his faithful Bucephalo,
accompanied by the best military formation of the time, the Macedonian
Phalanx which was armed with sarisses, the fearful five and half meter
long spears. He was the first great conqueror which has reached, Greece,
Egypt , Asia Minor, and Asia till the river Ind in India. He was famous
for having created ethnic syncretism between the Macedonians and the conquered
populations, especially the aggressive Persians. Alexander brought Greek
ideas, culture and mentality to the conquered countries and assured expansion
and domination of the Hellenistic Culture which together with the Roman
Civilization and Christianity presents the fundaments of what is now called
Western Civilization.
0
Alexander's
OriginsJuly
357
Alexander was born
at Pella in Macedonia in the late July of 356 BC, on the same day as the
famous Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was burned. His father was Philip II
of Macedon, who was brilliant ruler and strategist, while his mother was
Olympias, princess of Epirus, daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus. Olympias
practiced dyonisiastic
rituals. She was jealous, vindictive and very protective of Alexander.
Alexander was even more ambitious than his father; he was desperate when
he heard of Philip's conquests and said:
My father will get ahead of me in everything, and will leave nothing great for me to do.
His mother Olympias' ancestor was Achilles, and his father Philip II of Macedon, descends from Hercules.
Adrian
on AlexanderAlexander's
Origins , PlutarchAlexander's
Birth, Plutarch
PERSEUS
PROJECT, son of Philip , an Epirot and Aeacid by mother's side: Paus.
1.9.8
PERSEUS
PROJECT,reputed son of Ammon: Paus. 4.14.8
Alexander's
Youth344
Even as a young boy Alexander was fearless and strong. He, in the age of 12 years, tamed the beautiful and spirited Bucephalus, a horse that no one else could ride. Philip was so proud of Alexander's horsemanship that he said:
O my son, seek out a kingdom worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee.
Later, this famous stallion carried him as far as India till Hydaspes
river, where it died. There Alexander had built the city of Bucephala,
in memory of his beloved horse.
Alexander knew
by heart the Iliad. He loved Homer, and always slept with a copy of the
Iliad under his pillow.
Plutarch writes
: The care of his education, as it might be presumed, was committed
to a great many attendants, preceptors, and teachers, over the whole of
whom Leonidas, a near kinsman of Olympias, a man of an austere temper,
presided, who did not indeed himself decline the name of what in reality
is a noble and honorable office, but in general his dignity, and his near
relationship, obtained him from other people the title of Alexander's foster-father
and governor. But he who took upon him the actual place and style of his
pedagogue was Lysimachus the Acarnanian, who, though he had nothing to
recommend him, but his lucky fancy of calling himself Phoenix, Alexander
Achilles and Philip Peleus, was therefore well enough esteemed, and ranked
in the next degree after Leonidas.
From age 13 to
16 Alexander, at Mieza, together with the other boys belonging to the Macedonian
aristocracy was taught by Aristotle, who introduced him to the world of
arts and sciences.
During Philip's
expedition against the Byzantium in 340, he left Alexander, then sixteen
years old was left in Macedonia in the charge of his seal; Alexander in
the mean time was not idle, he reduced the rebellious Maedi, a Thracian
people to obedience. He took their capital town by storm, drove out the
barbarous inhabitants, and created a colony of several nations in their
room, called the town after his own name, Alexandropolis.
Philip's politics was not appreciated by the Athenians, and Demosthenes considered him semi-barbarian. Obviously the Macedonian hegemony presented the threat for their independent politics.
Related articles on the net:
PERSEUS
PROJECT,wives and sons: Paus. 9.7.2
PERSEUS
PROJECT,passionate nature: Paus. 6.18.2
PERSEUS
PROJECT, good fortune: Paus.
4.35.4, Paus.
7.10.3
PERSEUS
PROJECT,Aristotle's influence with him: Paus. 6.4.8
PERSEUS
PROJECT,house at Megalopolis: Paus. 8.32.1
PERSEUS
PROJECT,makes Chaeron tyrant of Pellene: Paus. 7.27.7
September
338
At the battle of Chaeronea Philip defeated the allied Greek states of the Sacred Band of Thebes in September 338 BC. at the time Alexander was only 18, when he commanded the left wing of Philip's cavalry, and demonstrated personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes. It is said he has been the first man that charged the Thebans' sacred band. Although Philip's army was greatly outnumbered by the Athenian and Theban troops, the Macedonian phalanxes triumphed over the Athenians and Thebans. Athens and Thebes became Philip's subjects. Sparta remained the only Greek state not under Macedonian control. This early bravery made Philip so proud of Alexander, that nothing pleased him more than to hear his subjects call himself their general and Alexander their king.
337BC.
At the Council
at Corinth, Philip imposed his politic system to the Greek states (with
exception of Sparta); Philip gave freedom and autonomy to all the political
parties in each state, establishing a bureaucratic system that would be
stable and loyal to him.
In 337 divorced
Olympias. After a quarrel
at a wedding feast, Alexander and his mother left Macedonia. Few months
later, they were
reconciled and Alexander returned; but his life was in danger...
337BC.
King
is dead, Long live the King.
Spring - Autumn 336 BC
Philip on his way to the theater
during the wedding celebration of his daughter with the Olympias' brother,
Alexander of Epirus, in July 336, was assassinated by the macedonian officer
Pausanias at Ege, antique capital of Macedonia. Alexander was immediately
presented to the army as new king. Alexander was 20 when he became king
of Macedonia. He at once executed at Lyncestis (region of northern Macedonia),
all alleged to be behind Philip's murder along with all possible rivals
and the whole fraction opposed to him. He executed Philip's nephew Aminita,
while Olyimpias has eliminated Cleopatra's new born sun.
Consolidation
of Kingdom and European Campaigns
He then marched south, stabilised Thessaly, and at an assembly of the Greek League at Corinth was appointed the strategos autocrator ( supreme commander ) of all Greeks for the expected invasion of Persian Empire, previously planned and initiated by Philip. On his return to Macedonia by way of Delphi, the Pythian priestess acclaimed him invincible.
335 BC
He started with blitz campaigns against the Triballi and Ilyrians, which took him across the Danube. He marched into Thrace in spring 335 and, after forcing the Shipka Pass and crushing the Triballi, crossed the Danube to reduce to obedience Getae and Celtic tribes; turning west, he then defeated and shattered a coalition of Ilyrians who had invaded Macedonia.
The Greek states had
grown restless under Macedonian hegemony. In the meantime a rumor of Alexander's
death in Illyria had caused a revolt of Thebans, favored by the Athenians
and other Greek states. He reached Thessaly in seven days and as in Boeotia
five days later. So only in 14 days Alexander marched 380 km from Pelion
in Illyria to Thebes. When the Thebans refused to surrender, he made an
entry and razed their city to the ground, sparing only temples and poet
Pindar's house; 6,000 were killed and 30,000 survivors sold into slavery.
PERSEUS PROJECT, destroys Thebes: Paus. 4.27.10, Paus. 7.6.9, Paus. 7.17.2, Paus. 9.6.5 ff., Paus. 9.7.1, Paus. 9.23.5, Paus. 9.25.10
PERSEUS
PROJECT, the danger over the Thebans,
Diodorus,
Historical
Library 17.10.1
The other Greek
states were frightened by this cruelty, and Alexander could afford himself
to treat Athens diplomatically, while Macedonian garrisons were left in
Corinth, Chalcis, and the Cadmea.
Beginnings
of the Alexander invasion of PersiaAlexander had matured
the idea of the Persian expedition. He also needed the Persian wealth to
maintain the army built by his father and pay off the 500 talents he owed
to the ten thousand, Greek professional troops, and of Agesilaus of Sparta.
Alexander's army in successful campaign in Persian territory had demonstrated
the weaknesses of the Persian Empire. With a good cavalry he could expect
the victory over any Persian army. The reason of invasion of Asia
was to liberate the Greek cities taken by the Persians some years before.
In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles, Hellespont leaving Antipater,
the general and friend of his father, as his deputy in Europe with over
13,000 soldiers. Alexander himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over
5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies
of Greek League. This army had excellent mixture of arms; the light armed
Cretan and Macedonian archers, Thracians, and the Agrianian javelin men;
the striking force was the cavalry, and the core of the army was the infantry
phalanx, 9,000 strong, armed with shields and 5 and half meter long spears,
sarise, and the 3,000 men of the royal troops, the hypaspists. Alexander's
second in command was Parmenio, who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor
during Philip's lifetime; many of his family and supporters were entrenched
in responsible positions. The army was accompanied by explorers, engineers,
architects, scientists, court officials, and historians.
PERSEUS
PROJECT, makes war on Darius: Paus. 6.17.5
0
The
Battle of Granicus
Spring
334
On
the way he stopped at Troy and after visiting Ilium , at the Granicus
River, near the Sea of Marmara (May/June 334).he confronted his first Persian
army which was led by three satraps.
The Persian plan to
tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded;
but the Persian line broke, and Alexander's victory was complete. This
victory opened western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities opened
their gates. The tyrants were expelled, and in contrast to Macedonian policy
in Europe, in Asia were installed democracies. Alexander confirmed his
Panhellenic policy, symbolized in the sending of 300 panoplies, i.e. armor
sets, taken at the Granicus as an offering dedicated to Athena at Athens
by "Alexander the son of Philip, and the Grecians, except the Lacedaemonians
(Spartans), won these from the barbarians who inhabit Asia." The cities
remained de facto under Alexander, and his nomination Calas as satrap of
Hellespontine Phrygia confirmed his intention to succeed the Great King
of Persia. The conquest of
Persian empire had become more realistic than in 346: Artaxerxes III had
died in 338, and the new king was the much weaker Darius II (he succeeded
in 336, after the brief reign of Arses, whom the trilingual inscription
found at Xanthus in 1973 shows that he has borne with the title Artaxerxes
IV).
When city of Miletus
opposed, encouraged by the closeness of the Persian fleet, Alexander
took it by assault; without a maritime battle: he disbanded his expensive
navy and decided to defeat the Persian fleet on land, by occupying the
coastal cities. In Caria, Halicarnassus resisted and was destroyed; but
Ada, the widow and sister of the satrap Idrieus, adopted Alexander as her
son and Alexander appointed her as a satrap of Caria. However, until 332
some parts of Caria held out. On his way toward Babylon, Alexander won
several important battles
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h
Asia
Minor the Battle of Issus
333 BC
Alexander conquered
western part of Asia Minor in winter 334-333, reducing to obedience the
hill tribes of Lycia and Pisidia; and in spring 333 he advanced along the
coastal road to Perga. At Gordium
in Phrygia, tradition records his cutting of the Gordian knot, which
could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia. At this point Alexander
benefited from the sudden death of Memnon, the competent Greek commander
of the Persian fleet. From Gordium he moved to Ancyra and then south through
Cappadocia and the Cilician Gates. In the meantime, Darius with his Grand
Army had advanced northward on the eastern side of Mt. Amanus.
Intelligence on both sides was imprecise, and the two armies had in
fact been advancing randomly. Alexander was already encamped by Myriandrus
(near modern Iskenderun, Turkey) when he find out that Darius was astride
his line of communications at Issus, north of Alexander's position (autumn
333). Alexander came head to head with King Darius during the Battle
of Issus on the north-east Mediterranean coast. Although Alexander
was advancing south he was surprised to find Darius approaching from his
North! Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Pinarus River.
In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory, and Darius
fled, leaving his family in Alexander's hands.
Alexander was outnumbered
many times (perhaps even 10:1). Even so, he held back a reserve
force, for the first time in the military history.
After the battle
when he had entered in the Darius's tent in all its luxury, golden bath,
silk carpets ..., while Alexander was known for living in modest spartan
conditions by comparison and is said to have commented:
The other famous event
that gives us an idea about Alexander's and Hephaestion's friendship, when
Alexander had captured Darius's throne tent with treasure of 3000 talents
of gold ( US$ 1.2 billion, 1 TALENT = 27 kg Au), with complete imperial
escortent; including Darius's mother, Sisygambis; his wife, Stateira; his
harem. and other princesses.
When Alexander
and Hephaestion went to meet Sisygambis, she prostrated herself at the
feet of the most kingly figure she saw, she chose by the mistake the taller
Hephaestion! Alexander is said to have responded rather friendly:
"Don't worry mother, he is Alexander too."
Alexander treated all the women with great respect "due to their station". An interesting fact is that later when Sisygambis had an opportunity to return to Persians, she had refused.
Paolo
Veronese: The Family of Darius before AlexanderAlexander's
Generosity, Plutarch
Conquest
of Syria, Phoenicia and Egypt
332 BC
With the intention
to isolate the Persian fleet from its maritime bases and so to destroy
it as an effective fighting force, from Issus Alexander marched south into
Syria and Phoenicia. The Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over
with no resistance. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander
replied with arrogance, demanding unconditional surrender to himself as
lord of Asia.
After taking Byblos and Sidon , he met resistance at Tyre, where he was refused entry into the island city. The Tyrians walled themselves in their island fortress. Alexander couldn't leave them to attack his rear and he could not attack by sea so he decided to build a land bridge, which still exists. He suceeded finally only after seven month not by land but in a very brutal naval battle; the Tyrians fired red hot sand at Alexander's fleet. The storming of Tyre in July 332 was Alexander's greatest military achievement; it was attended with great massacre and the sale of the women and children into slavery.
In the meantime (winter 333-332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor, but they were defeated by Antigonus, the satrap of Greater Phrygia; But by sea, Persians succeeded to recapture various cities and islands.
During the siege
of Tyre, Darius sent a letter with his offer: he wanted to pay ransom
of 10,000 talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates.
On that occasion Alexander's general Parmenio advised him to accept.
Leaving Parmenio
in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached
Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months,
and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie.
PERSEUS PROJECT, at
Tyre,
Diodorus,
Historical
Library 17.41.1
Alexander
in EgyptIn November 332 he
reached Egypt, and the Egyptians welcomed him as their liberator. The Persian
satrap Mazaces surrendered with no resistance. At Memphis Alexander was
sacrificed to Apis,(Hapi) , and was crowned with the traditional double
crown of the pharaohs of Egypt; the egyptian priests were placated and
their religion encouraged.
Alexander organized Egypt employing Egyptian governors, while keeping the army under a separate Macedonian command. He founded the city of Alexandria near the western arm of the Nile between the sea and Lake Mareotis, protected by the island of Pharos, and had it projected by the famous Rhodian architect Deinocrates. From Alexandria he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland to visit the celebrated oracle of the god Amon at Siwah. Alexander reaching the oracle in its oasis, the priest gave him the traditional salutation of a pharaoh, as son of Amon; Alexander consulted the oracle, which reviled him that he was the son of Amon (Zeus).
Alexander
in Mesopotamia
331
In spring 331
he returned to Phoenicia, nominated a Macedonian satrap for Syria, and
prepared to advance into Mesopotamia, toward Babylon. Early in July 331
Alexander was at Thapsacus on the river Euphrates, then he advanced across
northern Mesopotamia toward the Tigris. Darius sent his general Mazaeus,
who marched up the Tigris to oppose him.
PERSEUS PROJECT,in Babylon Diodorus, Historical Library 17.31.1
The Battle of Gaugamela
(or Arabela as it is also called in Assyria), was the last big battle of
the war, which took the place on the plain of Gaugamela between Nineveh
and Arbela on the 1st October 331 BC. Darius III succeeded to escape with
his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media before the battle
was over. Babylon welcomes Alexander as new "King of Asia"; Mazaeus, who
wisely surrendered Babylon was confirmed by Alexander as satrap. Alexander
with Mazaeus was so generous that he granted him the right to have his
coin. The same as in Egypt, the local religion and priests was encouraged.
The capital city Susa, also surrendered, releasing huge amounts of silver
and gold which corresponds to 120.000 talents, when the gold was estimated
in terms of silver. Reducing to obedience the mountain tribe of the Ouxians,
he now continued over the Zagros range into Persia, and successfully took
the Pass the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, Alexander
entered in the capital of Persia, Persepolis and Pasargadae.
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Historical
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PERSEUS PROJECT, at
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Historical
Library 17.71.1
As a symbol that
the Panhellenic war was terminated, Alexander ceremonially burned down
the palace of Xerxes; dyonisiastic act that was inspired by the Athenian
courtesan Thaïs. Later in spring 330 Alexander marched north into
Media and occupied its capital Ecbatana. Panhellenic war was over, the
Thessalians and Greek allies were sent home; since then he was conducting
a purely personal war. Since the Panhellenic war of revenge came to an
end, Alexander's political and ideological views on the empire were changing:
He had come to new political idea of two jointly ruling people: Macedonians
and Persians. That new politics created the opposition and misunderstanding
between Alexander and Macedonians. Before continuing to pursuit Darius,
who had escaped into Bactria, he collected all the Persian treasure and
entrusted it to Harpalus, who was to keep it at Ecbatana as chief treasurer.
Parmenio was also left behind in Media to control communication lines.
In July 330 Bessus,
the satrap of Bactria, had betrayed and imprisoned Darius, after a the
Caspian Gates at Skirmish (near modern Shahrud), the usurper Bessus finally
had stabbed Darius III and left him to die in agony.
Alexander found him dead or dying. Alexander organized an imperial funeral with all honors for the last Persian emperor.
Campaign
eastward, to Central AsiaAfter the Darius'
death there was no obstacle to Alexander's claim to be Great King, and
a Rhodian inscription of the year 330 BC. calls him "lord of Asia",
in sense of the Persian Empire; soon afterward his Asian coins have the
title of king. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian, he seized
Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps
and Persian notables. He crashed resistance of the Mardi, a mountain people
who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. Darius' Greek mercenaries were surrenders
as well. His advance eastward was fast. In Aria he reduced to obedience
Satibarzanes. He founded yet another Alexandria of the Aryans (modern Herat).
Philotas, Parmenio's
son, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, took a part in a plot against
Alexander. He was condemned by the army, and executed; and a secret message
was sent to Cleander, Parmenio's second in command, who obediently assassinated
him. This brutal action diffused horror but strengthened Alexander's position.
All Parmenio's men were eliminated and men close to Alexander promoted.
The Companion cavalry was reorganized in two sections, each containing
four squadrons (since then known as hipparchies); one group was commanded
by Alexander's oldest friend, Hephaestion, the other by Cleitus, an older
man .
From Phrada during
the winter of 330-329, Alexander moves to south through Arachosia toward
valley of the Helmand River, and crossed the country of the Paropamisadae,
where he founded another cities Alexandria in Aracosia and Alexandria by
the Caucasus. In the meantime Bessus in Bactria was organizing a revolt
in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Crossing
the mountains of Hindu Kush, Alexander marches northward over the Khawak
Pass (over 3000m), Alexander brought his troops, despite food shortages,
snow and very cold climate to Drapsaca (modern Banu ). Then he moves westward
to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh/Wazirabad in Afghanistan), appointed loyal
satraps in Bactria and Aria. Crossing the Oxus, he sent his general Ptolemy
in pursuit of Bessus, who had meanwhile been overthrown by the Sogdian
Spitamenes. Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he
was later mutilated after the Persian manner (losing his nose and ears);
several months later he was publicly executed at Ecbatana. They fastened
him to a couple of trees which were bound down so as to meet, and then
being let loose, with a great force returned to their places, each of them
carrying that part of the body along with it that was tied to it.
PERSEUS PROJECT, among
Arimaspians and Gedrosians, Diodorus,
Historical
Library 17.81.1
329-
328
Alexander occupies Maracanda (modern Samarkand). From there Alexander marched to north by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), at the extreme limits of the Persian Empire. There he broke the rebellion of the Scythian nomads, who had massacred Macedonian soldiers. At the site of modern Khojent on the Jaxartes, he founded a city, Alexandria Eschate, "the last Alexandria" In the mean time Spitamenes, prince of Sogdiana had raised in revolt, who had escaped in the hart of Asiatic Russia raising the Massagetai against the Macedons. It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most rigid opponent he encountered in his campaigns. In the autumn, Alexander’s general Craterus triumphed over the Massagetai; who then have killed Spitamenes, offering his head to Alexander, asking for the peace. It is interesting fact that Spitamenes daughter, Apame had become the wife of Seleuco, who had later founded the Seleucid dynasty. At Maracanda in the autumn of 328 BC, during the dyonisiastic feasts, Alexander murdered Cleitus, one of his most trusted commanders. That event widened the detachment between Alexander and many Macedonians. Alexander occupies Maracanda (modern Samarkand). From there Alexander marched to north by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), at the extreme limits of the Persian Empire. There he broke the rebellion of the Scythian nomads, who had massacred Macedonian soldiers. At the site of modern Khojent on the Jaxartes, he founded a city, Alexandria Eschate, "the last Alexandria" In the mean time Spitamenes, prince of Sogdiana had raised in revolt, who had escaped in the hart of Asiatic Russia raising the Massagetai against the Macedons. It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most rigid opponent he encountered in his campaigns. In the autumn, Alexander’s general Craterus triumphed over the Massagetai; who then have killed Spitamenes, offering his head to Alexander, asking for the peace. It is interesting fact that Spitamenes daughter, Apame had become the wife of Seleuco, who had later founded the Seleucid dynasty.
Spring
327
On his march towards India through Afghanistan, he attacked Oxyartes and the remaining three princes (Corienes, Catanes and Austanes) who controlled the hills of Paraetacene (modern Tadzhikistan).One of his splendid moves was the capture of the Sogdian Rock. At the top of the rock was Oxyartes, who felt protected because of the vertical cliffs on each side. He provoked Alexander to send up men with wings to take the fortress. Alexander did exactly what Oxyartes ironically proposed. He sent up 300 experiences climbers during the night with the assurance of spectacular wealth if they succeed. The climb - a "very severe" in alpinistic manner of speech was concluded by 90% of the soldiers. Next morning Oxyartes was shocked to see these men "with wings" waving down at him. He surrendered with no resistance. Alexander and Oxyartes became good friends. Alexander married his sister (according some authors his daughter) Roxanne.
Shortly afterward,
at Bactra, he tried to impose the Persian court ceremonial, the prostration
(proskynesis, genuflexsion) on the Greeks and Macedonians too. This habit
which was normal for Persians entering the king's presence, to them was
intolerable and unacceptable. Even Callisthenes, historian and nephew of
Aristotle refused to abase himself. Several weeks later Callisthenes was
held to be involved in conspiracy among the royal pages and was arrested
(he was executed or died in prison according some authors).
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1.6.2
Callisthenes
Invasion
of IndiaSummer
327 - Winter 326
Before Alexander crossed into India in early summer 327 BC, he felt the necessity to reorganize the army that he had led through Persia and to it adapt the different climate and terrain. He burned all of the baggage wagons of Persian booty that impeded his mobility, and he dismissed a large number of his soldiers, reshaping his army with several thousand east Iranian cavalrymen. The fighting forces were about 40,000, while the troops with auxiliary services were 120,000 men. Crossing again the Hindu Kush mountain, this time without snow, by Bamian and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander split his forces. Half the army with the luggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas, both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass. Alexander led the rest through the mountains to the north.
In spring 326,
crossing the river Cofen, Alexander entered Taxila, and King
Taxiles equipped Alexander with elephants and troops in return for
aid against his rival Porus, who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes and
the Acesines. In June 326 BC. Alexander fought his last great battle on
the left bank of the Hydaspes against Porus, one of the most powerful Indian
kings. Alexander's army crossed the heavily defended river in dramatic
manner during a violent tempest to meet Porus' forces. The Indians were
defeated in a brutal battle, although they fought with elephants. Alexander
captured Porus and, like the other kings he had defeated, allowed him to
continue to reign his country. Alexander even conquested an autonomous
province and granted it to Porus as a gift. He founded two cities there,
Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and Bucephala (named after
his horse Bucephalus, which died there); and Porus became his friend and
ally.
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November
326 - Spring 325
Alexander's next goal was to reach the Ganges River, which was actually 400 kilometers away. He was impatient to continue farther, but when he had advanced to the Hyphasis his army exhausted in body and spirit denied to go farther in the tropical rain. Coenus, one of Alexander's four chief commanders, acted as their speaker. His soldiers had heard stories of the powerful Indian tribes that lived on the Ganges and remembered the difficulty of the battle with Porus, they refused to proceed any farther. On finding the army insistent, although he was extremely disappointed, he accepted their decision, but persuaded them to travel south down the rivers Hydaspes and Indus so that they might reach the Ocean. On the Hyphasis he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods. On the Hydaspes Phoenician and Egyptian sailors built a fleet of 800 ships. He then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks, leaded by Craterus, Haphesteion and him. The fleet was commanded by Nearchus, and Alexander's own captain was Onesicritus; both of them later wrote the memoirs of the campaign. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, merciless massacre; at the invasion of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes (Ravi) River, Alexander was heavily wounded. During this journey, Alexander sought out the Indian philosophers, the Brahmins, who were famous for their wisdom, and debated them on philosophical issues. He became legendary for centuries in India for being both a wise philosopher and a courageous conqueror.
One of the villages
in which the army stopped belonged to the Malli, who were said to be one
of the most warlike of the Indian tribes. Alexander was wounded several
times in this attack, most seriously when an arrow pierced his breastplate
and his ribcage. The Macedonian officers rescued him in a narrow escape
from the village.
Alexander and his
army reached the mouth of the Indus in July 325 B.C.
Summer
325
In the summer of 325 BC, Alexander on reaching Patala, situated at the top of the Indus delta, built a harbor and explored both arms of the Indus, which then ran into the Rann of Kutch. He intended to lead part of his forces back by land, across the dangerous Gedrosian Desert. Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, who made a exploration voyage along the Persian Gulf. was put in command of a fleet of 150 ships that took the sea route. Nearchus sailed westwards with northeast monsoon in late October 325 BC.
September
- October 325
Alexander marched along the coast through Gedrosia (modern Baluchistan), but he was soon forced by mountainous country to turn inland. Craterus, a high-ranking officer, already had been sent off with the baggage and siege train, the elephants, and the sick and wounded, together with three battalions of the phalanx, by way of the Mulla Pass, Quetta, and Kandahar into the Helmand Valley; from there he marched through Drangiana in order to rejoin the main army on the Amanis (modern Minab) River in Carmania. Alexander, on land, lost nearly three quarters of his army because of the severe conditions of the desert, and in a unexpected monsoon flood while they were encamped in a Wadi many of them died.
Autumn
- Winter 325
When the survivors reached the region called Carmania, their fortune changed radically as they were welcomed into the prosperous country. Alexander and his men celebrated the end of their calamities in the desert and traveled in luxury to Harmezeia, where they rejoined to Nearchus' fleet, which also had suffered losses. Then the joined army marched to Persis to take rest.
Consolidation
of the empireIn spring 324 he
was back in Susa, capital of Elam and administrative center of the Persian
Empire; at Susa Alexander held a banquet to celebrate the conquest of the
Persian Empire. In promotion of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians
into one master race, he and 80 of his officers took Persian wives; he
married Darius' daughters Barsine (also called Stateira) and Hephaestion
married her sister Drypetis, and 10,000 of Macedonian soldiers which married
with native wives were given generous gifts. The filopersian policy brought
increasing friction to Alexander's relations with the rest of Macedonians,
who had no understanding for his new conception of the empire. His determination
to incorporate Persians on equal terms in the army and the administration
of the provinces was heavily criticized by Macedonians. This discontent
was now disqualified by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received
a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Orientals from
Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, and other parts of the empire into the Companion
cavalry. Persian aristocracy had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard.
Peucestas, the new governor of Persis, gave this policy full support, but
most Macedonians saw it as a danger to their own favored position. The
issue came to a head at Opis (324 BC.), when Alexander's decision to send
home Macedonian veterans under Craterus was interpreted as a move toward
transferring the seat of power to Asia. There was an open insurrection
involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander discharged his
whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition deceased. An emotional
scene of reconciliation was followed by a vast banquet with 9,000 guests
to celebrate the ending of the misunderstanding and the partnership in
government of Macedonians and Persians as partners in the empire. Ten thousand
veterans were now sent back to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was
eliminated.
In
summer 324 Alexander attempted to solve another problem, that of the nomadic
mercenaries, of whom there were thousands in Asia and Greece, many of them
political exiles from their own cities. A decree brought by Nicanor to
Europe and proclaimed at Olympia (September 324) required the Greek cities
of the Greek League to receive back all exiles and their families (except
the Thebans), a maneuver that indicated some modification of the oligarchic
regimes maintained in the Greek cities by Alexander's governor Antipater.
Alexander now planned to recall Antipater and replace him by Craterus;
but he has died before this could be done. In autumn 324 Hephaestion died
in Ecbatana, and Alexander indulged in extravagant mourning for his best
friend; he was given a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000
talents. His post of chiliarch (grand vizier) was left unfilled. It was
probably in connection with a general order now sent out to the Greeks
to honor Hephaestion as a hero that Alexander linked the demand that he
himself should be accorded divine honors. For a long time his mind had
dwelt on ideas of godhead. Alexander had on several occasions encouraged
favorable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus
or Heracles.
PERSEUS PROJECT,
against the Cossaeans, Diodorus,
Historical
Library 17.111.1
In the winter
of 324 Alexander carried out punitive expedition against the Cossaeans
in the hills of Luristan. The following spring at Babylon he received complimentary
embassies from the Libyans and from the Bruttians, Etruscans, and Lucanians
of Italy; representatives of the cities of Greece who came to celebrate
and confirm Alexander's divine status. Following up Nearchus' voyage, he
had founded an Alexandria at the mouth of the Tigris and made plans to
develop sea communications with India, for which an expedition along the
Arabian coast was to be a preliminary one. He also appointed Heracleides
to explore the Hyrcanian (Caspian) Sea.
The plans for the
conquest of the western Mediterranean and the creation of a universal monarchy
were mentioned by Diodorus. In his later years Alexander's aims have been
directed toward exploration, in particular of Arabia and the Caspian.
Mysterious
Death and Apotheosis Alexander's golden
sarcophagus was melted down for coinage by the Ptolomius XI and replaced
with one of alabaster. The tomb disappeared some time in the 4th century
A.D.
In 1995 his tomb
was eventually rediscovered in oasis of Siwah
(although there are not certain archeological proofs). Quite apart from
the fact it was in Siwah, Egypt and not Alexandria, where it was visited
many times in antiquity, the tomb is dedicated to Alexander.
Related articles:
PERSEUS PROJECT,
death, Diodorus,
Historical
Library 17.117.1
PERSEUS PROJECT, death:
Paus.
1.25.3
PERSEUS PROJECT, said
to have been poisoned by water of Styx: Paus.
8.18.6
PERSEUS PROJECT, buried
at Memphis: Paus.
1.6.3, Paus.
1.7.1
PERSEUS PROJECT, ranked
as general below Pyrrhus by Procles: Paus.
4.35.4
No heir had been
appointed to the throne, and his generals adopted Philip II's illegitimate
son, Philip Arrhidaeus, and Alexander's posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander
IV, as kings, sharing out the satrapies among themselves, after much negotiation.
Some years later, both kings were murdered, Arrhidaeus in 317 and Alexander
in 309. The parts of former Alexander's empire became independent monarchies,
and the generals, following Antigonus' lead in 306, took the title of monarch.
Alexander generals known as Diadochs had established their own kingdoms
on the rests of the Alexander's empire:
PERSEUS
PROJECT, his family extirpated by Cassander: Paus.
9.7.2
EpilogueSeveral different
sources of the period have survived, especially Plutarch, Diodorus,
Xenophon and Arrian. Classic authors have covered different issues, which
are compared with the information obtained from other sources, such as
inscriptions and political speeches from Athens (Demosthenes).
Alexander had the
iron will and capacity to led his men; he knew when to with draw and to
modify and adapt his policy. Alexander had imaginative fantasy of genius
which was driven with the strong romantic figures like Achilles, Heracles,
and Dionysus. He was sometimes cruel and autocratic. The only clear characteristics
that emerge are his outstanding military genius and his successful politics.
The only psyhologically clear motive is the pursuit of glory: the urge
to surpass the heroes of myth and to attain divinity. The success of his
ambition, at immense cost in human terms, spread a veneer of Greek culture
far into central Asia, which remained present during the Hellenistic era
for a long time after his death.
His financial policy
was centralized with collectors independent of the local governors, the
establishment of a new coinage helped trade everywhere and vast amount
of the Persian treasuries, have created desperately needed impact to the
economy of the Mediterranean.
Alexander has founded
over 70 new cities. The Greek influence remained strong and the colonization
process was continued by Alexander's successors. The diffusion of Hellenic
customs over Asia till India was one of the most dominant effects of Alexander's
conquests, but his plans for ethnic fusion, did not have success. The Macedonians
rejected the idea of ethnic fusion and in the later Seleucid Empire the
Hellenistic element was dominant. After his death, nearly all the noble
Susa marriages were dissolved.
As a conqueror
Alexander is among the greatest the history has seen. He had adapted new
tactics and created innovative forms of warfare ( battles against the Shaka
nomads, or against Porus with his elephants). His strategy was genial and
imaginative and he knew how to use the opportunities that occurred in every
battle that were decisive for the victory.
He initiated the
era of the Hellenistic monarchies, and created, if not politically, at
least economically and culturally, a single market extending from Gibraltar
to the Punjab, open to trade, social and cultural exchange. This vast territory
had common civilization, and the Greek was in fact was the lingua franca
of the time.
Alexander's expedition
brought significant improvements of geography and natural history. His
achievements mark a decisive moment in the World history. The Roman Empire,
the spread of Christianity as a world religion, and the thousand years
of Byzantium were all in part the consequences of Alexander's conquests.
Related articles:
PERSEUS
PROJECT, epic poem on him: Paus.
6.18.6
PERSEUS
PROJECT, statues: Paus.
1.9.4, Paus.
5.20.10, Paus.
5.25.1, Paus.
6.11.1
PERSEUS PROJECT, overreached
by Anaximenes: Paus.
6.18.2-4
PERSEUS PROJECT, joins
Clazomenae to mainland: Paus.
7.3.9
PERSEUS PROJECT, wishes
to dig through promontory of Mimas: Paus.
2.1.5
PERSEUS PROJECT, sets
up no trophies: Paus.
9.40.9
PERSEUS PROJECT, dedicates
cuirass and spear to Aesculapius: Paus.
8.28.1
